Behavioural, Educational, and Research Consultants

Extrinsic Reinforcement in the Classroom: Bribery

or Best Practice

 K. Angeleque Akin-Little, Tanya L. Eckert, Benjamin J. Lovett, & Steven G. Little

 School Psychology Review, 33, 344-362

The debate over the effects of the use of extrinsic reinforcement in classrooms, businesses, and societal settings has been occurring for over 30 years. Some theorists have cautioned against the use of reward, whereas others have found little, if any, detrimental effect. This article examines the debate with an emphasis on data-based findings. The extrinsic/intrinsic dichotomy is explored along with seminal studies in both the cognitive and behavioral literatures. The results from important meta-analytic studies are presented. From this review, it is concluded that little detrimental effect is found with the use of external reinforcement. Readers are given specific recommendations on the appropriate use of reinforcement programs in educational settings.

 

 CHILDREN AND TRAUMATIC EVENTS: THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES

FOR PSYCHOLOGISTS WORKING IN THE SCHOOLS

 STEVEN G. LITTLE, ANGELEQUE AKIN-LITTLE, & GABRIEL GUTIERREZ

 Psychology in the Schools, 46, 199-205

It is clear that exposure to traumatic events is not uncommon in childhood and adolescence, and psychologists working in schools should have some training in meeting the needs of this segment of the population. One intervention that has been empirically supported in the trauma field is Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavior Therapy (TF-CBT). This article seeks to provide an overview of research on the efficacy of TF-CBT with children and adolescents who have experienced trauma with a primary focus on psychologists working in the schools.

  

PSYCHOLOGY’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

 Steven G. Little & Angeleque Akin-Little

 Psychology in the Schools, 45, 227-234

Classroom management (CRM) has been associated with discipline, control, or other terms that connote reducing unacceptable student behavior. However, CRM involves not merely responding effectively when problems occur, but also preventing problems from occurring by creating environments that encourage learning and appropriate behavior. Teachers’ managerial abilities have been found to positively relate to students’ behavior and achievement in every process-product study to date. Researchers have consistently identified the components necessary for effective CRM. However, no one has surveyed working teachers to ascertain the extent to which teachers use the research findings in their classrooms. A survey was developed in order to attempt to answer this question. The survey consisted of three sections asking questions on demographics, classroom rules, and classroom child management. One hundred and forty-six teachers from U.S. school districts in the Midwest, South, and Southwest were surveyed. Results indicated that, overall, teachers reported the use of appropriate CRM procedures in relatively high frequencies. However, the high percentage of districts reporting the use of corporal punishment was disturbing given the research findings regarding its lack of effectiveness. Along with the presentation of the survey results, this article also discusses how the data on CRM, collected by psychologists, has contributed to improvements in teacher behavior and student achievement and the apparent gap between best practice and actual practice.

 

TEACHER KNOWLEDGE OF AND CONFIDENCE IN MEETING

THE NEEDS OF CHILDREN WITH CHRONIC MEDICAL CONDITIONS:

PEDIATRIC PSYCHOLOGY’S CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION

 LAURA A. NABORS, STEVEN G. LITTLE, ANGELEQUE AKIN-LITTLE,

& EMILY A. IOBST

 Psychology in the Schools, 45, 217-226

More children and adolescents who have chronic illnesses are being included in regular education classrooms today than ever before. However, teachers may not feel confident about being able to meet these children’s educational, social, or emotional needs in the classroom. School psychologists are able to assess children’s functioning in these areas and can provide information to teachers on a case-by-case basis to ensure that children with chronic illnesses receive appropriate and comprehensive services at school and are included in regular education settings to the fullest extent possible. This study assessed special education and regular education teachers’ perceptions of their knowledge about and confidence in meeting the academic and social needs of children with chronic medical conditions. Two-hundred and forty-seven teachers from 15 midwestern elementary schools completed a survey rating their knowledge and confidence in meeting the academic and social needs of children with 13 chronic medical conditions. Special education teachers reported being more knowledgeable than regular education teachers about cerebral palsy, epilepsy, hemophilia, spina bifida, renal failure, and allergies. However, overall, special education teachers were not more confident than regular education teachers in meeting the academic needs of children with chronic medical conditions. Future research should focus on whether experience affects teacher knowledge and confidence and should examine the effectiveness of interventions to improve teacher knowledge for working with children with medical conditions.

  

Our Katrina Experience: Providing Mental Health Services in

Concordia Parish, Louisiana

 Angeleque Akin-Little & Steven G. Little

 Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 39, 18-23

Responding to the call for psychologists to serve Louisiana and the Gulf Coast after Hurricane Katrina, 2 school psychologists spent almost 2 weeks in central Louisiana in early September 2005. They were located in a rural area and provided mental health services to evacuees from Hurricane Katrina in a number of small shelters, an RV park, and the schools. This article describes their experiences as mental health volunteers and the impact those experiences had on their professional and personal lives.

  

Comparing Individual Behavior Plans from Schools

With and Without Schoolwide Positive Behavior

Support: A Preliminary Study

 Natasha S. Medley, Steven G. Little, & Angeleque Akin-Little

 Journal of Behavioral Education, 17, 93-110

School-wide positive behavior support (SWPBS) has been proposed as a proactive and preventive method to reduce problematic behavior in schools. Under this approach, educators and administrators seek to create a school environment that fosters prosocial behavior and attempts to systematically deter problem behaviors before they happen. To date, the relationship between SWPBS and individualized positive behavior support (PBS) plans has not been examined. Specifically, it is unclear whether an atmosphere of SWPBS facilitates the functional behavioral assessment process and the design of PBS plans for students exhibiting severe behavior problems. The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether behavior support plans created in schools employing SWPBS systems were more technically adequate than support plans created in schools utilizing traditional approaches to behavior problems. Results indicated that support plans created at schools with SWPBS systems were more technically adequate than support plans produced at non-SWPBS schools as measured by the Behavior Support Plan-Quality Evaluation (BSP-QE). However, support plans from schools with SWPBS systems were still considered underdeveloped. Limitations and future research are discussed.

  

Teachers’ Use of Classroom Management

Procedures in the United States and Greece

A Cross-Cultural Comparison

 K. ANGELEQUE AKIN-LITTLE, STEVEN G. LITTLE, & MARIANA LANITI

 School Psychology International, 28, 53-62

A survey was conducted of teachers’ classroom management practices in the United States and Greece. The United States sample consisted of 149 teachers in Arizona, Illinois, Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama. The Greek sample consisted of 97 teachers in Athens and the surrounding area. The survey asked questions regarding teachers’ use of important classroom management principles (e.g. rules, classroom management practices). Responses of the teachers in the two samples were remarkably similar which indicates that, overall, teachers are reporting the use of empirically validated classroom management procedures (e.g. rules, positive reinforcement) in relatively high frequencies. Results and implications are discussed in terms of the importance of cross-cultural research of this type.

  

Interventions Based on Attachment Theory: A Critical Analysis

 Clayton R. Cook, Steven G. Little, & Angeleque Akin-Little

 Journal of Early Childhood and Infant Psychology, 3, 7-19

Attachment-based interventions represent a class of intervention strategies that focus on enhancing caregiver-child interaction patterns. The present study assesses the efficacy and methodological adequacy of contemporary studies on attachment-based interventions. The results of our analysis revealed that attachment interventions produce on average weak to moderate effects across caregiver and child outcomes. Also, it was found that data on treatment integrity or consumer satisfaction are essentially nonexistent in the literature, hindering the interpretation and generalizability of study findings. Evaluation of individual study effect sizes around the overall weighted mean effect size indicated considerable variability in the magnitude of effect produced by attachment interventions across studies. The discussion focuses on the evidence-based status of interventions based on attachment theory and promising directions for attachment researchers to take in the research.

  

Adolescent Overscheduling: The Relationship Between Levels of Participation in Scheduled Activities and Self-Reported Clinical Symptomology

 Shari Melman, Steven G. Little, & Angeleque Akin-Little

 The High School Journal, 90, 19-30

The past 20 to 30 years has seen an increase in the time children and adolescents spend in structured activities outside of the regular school day. This has resulted in a significant reduction in the amount of free time children and youth have for leisure time activities. While much discussion has been given to this topic in the popular press, little systematic research has been conducted addressing this issue. The purpose of this study was to identify whether there is a relationship between the number of regularly scheduled activities in which adolescents are involved, the amount of time adolescents spend participating in these activities, and self-reports of anxiety, depression, and physical complaints. Results indicated that the greater the amount of time students reported participating in activities both at the time of the study and for the entire year, the higher their self-reported level of anxiety tended to be. Similar results were not observed for depression or somatization.

  

Current Perspectives on School-Based Behavioral Interventions:

Introduction to the Mini-Series

 K. Angeleque Akin-Little, Steven G. Little, & Frank M. Gresham

 School Psychology Review, 33, 323-325

Emotional and behavioral problems of students in the classroom have been rated as a major concern for teachers, administrators, and the public (Hardman & Smith, 2003; Macciomei, 1999). Without effective behavior management, a positive and productive classroom environment is impossible to achieve. The most effective model for producing behavior change and preventing the development of maladaptive behavior is the behavioral model (Wielkiewicz, 1995). In addition, behavioral approaches have been found to be very effective in developing effective instructional strategies. However, resistance to the use of behavioral procedures in the classroom has come from a variety of sources and some individuals have been particularly harsh in their criticism of the use of positive reinforcement (e.g., Kohn, 1993). In spite of this, teachers continually request training in behavior and classroom management techniques (Maag, 1999, 2001).

  

Re-Examining the Overjustification Effect

 K. Angeleque Akin-Little & Steven G. Little

 Journal of Behavioral Education, 13, 179-192

The purpose of the present investigation was to extend the research related to the possible negative side effects of extrinsic reinforcement on children’s compliant behavior, particularly the overjustification effect. Specifically, this study examined the effects of a token reinforcement procedure in a naturalistic environment (third grade classroom) on children’s compliance with classroom rules. Three students exhibiting high compliance with classroom rules were selected. Results indicated that the introduction of a token reinforcement program contingent on the occurrence of rule compliance had no detrimental effect on their rule compliant behavior following the withdrawal of the token procedure (i.e., comparison of Baseline I and Baseline II). Thus, the overjustification effect was not supported.

  

Absenteeism: A Review of the Literature

and School Psychology’s Role

 Jeffrey S. Goldstein, Steven G. Little, & K. Angeleque Akin-Little

 The California School Psychologist, 8, 127-139

A major problem faced by schools across the country is student absenteeism. Although the problem is pervasive in American schools, the attention focused on this issue has been inadequate. Poor student attendance has far reaching effects on the individual, the school, and society in general. The intent of this paper is to document the problem, summarize existing research on mediating factors, provide a summary of interventions for improving student attendance rates in schools, and to offer specific suggestions for school psychologists. In addition, specific attention is given to suggestions for future research to help expand the current understanding of the causes and remediation of poor student attendance.

  

Counselor-Client Matching on Ethnic, Gender, and Language:

Implications for Counseling School-aged Children

 Julie Hall, Dana Kaplan, Howard B. Lee, & Steven G. Little

 North American Journal of Psychology, 4, 367-380

This paper addresses the issue of counselor-client match in one to one therapeutic interventions (i.e., counseling). The primary objective of this investigation was to examine children and adolescents’ counseling outcomes to determine if clients of different backgrounds would benefit from matching the client and counselor on ethnic, gender, and language factors. Multivariate analyses were performed on the independent variables of ethnicity, gender, and client-counselor language matches to determine if general psychological functioning and other variables were different between matched and non matched groups. Overall; ethnicity, language, and gender matches led to improvements in treatment outcome. Implications for counseling practice are discussed.

  

An Analysis of School Psychology Faculty by Graduating University

 Steven G. Little, K. Angeleque Akin-Little, & Daniel H. Tingstrom

 School Psychology Quarterly, 19, 299-310

Shortages of school psychologists have been documented for many years with this deficiency extending not just to practitioners but to trainers as well. This article presents the results of a search to identify individuals employed in academic institutions and their graduating universities. Using an Internet search and mailings to doctoral degree-granting school psychology programs, 633 individuals were identified as having graduated from a school psychology program in the United States or Canada and being currently employed full-time in a faculty position in an institute of higher education. When graduating university was examined, the University of Wisconsin-Madison and University of Texas at Austin were consistently the highest rated programs in terms of producing school psychology academics. Other findings indicated that APA-accredited programs produced the majority of individuals in academic positions and that women have outnumbered men in entering the professorate every year since 1987. Women also currently comprise 51% of the school psychology professorate. While these data should not be considered a measure of program quality, they do provide an objective rating of program success in preparing students for careers in academia.

  

Introduction to the Mini-Series:

The State of Developing University Faculty in School Psychology:

Current Status and Perspectives on the Future

 K. Angeleque Akin-Little and Steven G. Little

 School Psychology Quarterly, 19, 295-298

 This introduction provides an overview of the purpose of this special issue and the articles included. The shortage of school psychologists entering academic careers has been an issue since the time of the Thayer Conference in 1954 and has become increasingly salient in recent years. It is hoped that these articles provide suggestions for training program faculty interested in increasing the number of their graduates who enter academic careers, and stimulate discussion on issues related to doctoral-level training and academic school psychology.

  

ACADEMIC SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS:

ADDRESSING THE SHORTAGE

 STEVEN G. LITTLE & K. ANGELEQUE AKIN-LITTLE

 Psychology in the Schools, 41, 451-459

The following article attempts to address the current shortage in school psychology faculty. Although little empirical evidence exists, the authors conclude that such a shortage exists. Possible explanations for the shortage and barriers to overcoming it are discussed. Preliminary data from a survey, which attempted to identify programs with a consistent track record in preparing students who enter academia, are presented. The article concludes with an examination of suggestions for improving the current situation. These suggestions are culled from two directors of successful school psychology programs and the authors’ own experiences as trainers.

  

EVALUATING THE DIFFERENTIAL TREATMENT OF EMOTIONAL

DISTURBANCE AND SOCIAL MALADJUSTMENT

 LEA A. THEODORE, ANGELEQUE AKIN-LITTLE, & STEVEN G. LITTLE

 Psychology in the Schools, 41, 879-886

The vague and incomplete federal definition of emotional disturbance has caused a great deal of controversy and debate since the inception of Public Law 94–142. The lack of resolution among professionals attempting to elucidate the distinction between emotional disturbance and social maladjustment has resulted in continued conflict. Included in this debate are (a) whether students who are socially maladjusted should be included in the federal definition of emotional disturbance; (b) whether students identified as socially maladjusted should receive services; and (c) whether differential treatment for the two groups is warranted. In this article we provide a rationale for differential treatment between these two disorders as well as pertinent interventions tailored to meet the needs of individuals identified with emotional disturbance (ED) and social maladjustment (SM).

  

Education in Statistics and Research Design in School Psychology

 Steven G. Little, Howard B. Lee & Angeleque Akin-Little

 School Psychology International, 24, 437-448

Training issues have long been debated within school psychology in the US with the doctorate being considered more of a research degree and the Masters/Specialist degree thought of as the level required for entry into practice. Therefore, this study examined statistics and research design requirements at various levels of school psychology education in the United States. A survey was sent to 181 programs, with 108 being returned, a return rate of 60 percent. Results indicated more required courses in statistics and research design at the doctoral level. When specific competencies were examined, eight of 17 statistics competencies and no research design competencies were reported as being more important for doctoral students. In addition, an attempt was made to compare the results of this survey with degree requirements of programs in school/educational psychology in other English speaking countries via a web-based search. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of statistics and research design competency at all levels of the profession.

 

 A PREVENTATIVE MODEL OF SCHOOL CONSULTATION:

INCORPORATING PERSPECTIVES FROM POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

 K. ANGELEQUE AKIN-LITTLE, STEVEN G. LITTLE, & NINA DELLIGATTI 

Psychology in the Schools, 41, 155-162

Using the principles of mental health and behavioral consultation, combined with concepts from positive psychology, this paper generates a new preventative model of school consultation. This model has two steps: (1) the school psychologist aids the teacher in the development and use of his/her personal positive psychology (e.g., optimism, objective happiness, etc.); and (2) the teacher is then encouraged to utilize positive psychology in the classroom. In support of this model a brief overview of consultation, a discussion of primary prevention in the schools, and a description of positive psychology is presented. It is the authors’ belief that teachers who are taught to develop their own personal positive psychology and practice positive psychology in the classroom will (a) provide a more reinforcing classroom environment which may prevent behavior problems from developing; (b) be more accepting of the use of the behavioral principles in the classroom; and (c) implement interventions with greater integrity.

  

CONDUCT DISORDER IN GIRLS:

DIAGNOSTIC AND INTERVENTION ISSUES

 NINA DELLIGATTI, ANGELEQUE AKIN-LITTLE, & STEVEN G. LITTLE

 Psychology in the Schools, 40, 183-192

Current prevalence rates of Conduct Disorder (CD) in girls may be an underestimate due to inappropriate diagnostic criteria, biased perceptions by those responsible for reporting problematic behavior, and differential social constraints for each gender. Relatively few published studies of CD and related behaviors in girls exist. Available evidence suggests adolescent girls with CD have a poor outcome including early and violent death, arrest, substance abuse and dependence, antisocial personality disorder, failure to finish high school, pregnancy, sexual promiscuity, and contraction of sexually transmitted disease. Even with its relatively low, possibly underestimated prevalence rate in comparison with that of boys, CD has been found to be the second most common psychiatric disorder in adolescent girls. In addition to examining possible reasons for the lack of research on CD in girls, this article reviews possible risk factors and suggested assessment and intervention strategies for this population. Particular attention is paid to implications for practitioners in the school setting.

  

Graduate Education of the Top Contributors to the

School Psychology Literature: 1987-1995.

 Steven G. Little

 School Psychology International, 18, 15-27.

This study examined who has been publishing in the major school psychology journals, the universities where they received their graduate training, and the categories of publications of graduates of selected universities as one measure of the quality of graduate education in school psychology. The journals included were the journal of School Psychology, School Psychology International, School Psychology Review, School Psychology Quarterly, Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, and Psychology in the schools as these are the major journals represented in the profession. Results indicated E. Scott Heubner as the most prolific author in the school psychology literature during the period under investigation and graduates of the University of Georgia as making the greatest contribution to the literature. Results are discussed in relation to previous research and surveys evaluating graduate program quality.

  

The Influence of Racial and Geographic Characteristics on

Attribution of Blame

 Steven G. Little, Robert C. Sterling, & Daniel H. Tingstrom

 Journal of Social Psychology, 136, 373-379.

This study was designed to test the assumption that a hierarchy of evaluation will exist when multiple group membership information is provided. It was hypothesized that, based on in-group bias, there would be an additive effect of group membership (racial and geographic) information. Results indicated that White northern and southern samples of U.S. students tended to rate geographically similar yet racially different actor most favorably. Attributionally, the Black actor was consistently rated as less responsible for his actions than the White actor.

  

The Use and Abuse of Human Figure Drawings

 Robert W. Motta, Steven G. Little, & Michael I. Tobin

 School Psychology Quarterly, 8, 162-169

 

Human figure drawings (HFDs) have been used to describe and predict psychological functioning for over 100 years. They are among the most popular assessment devices within psychological test batteries and their reliability and validity have been extensively investigated. This paper reviews data-based studies on figure drawings and concludes that there is little support for their validity or for their use as devices to assess personality, behavior, emotion, or intellectual functioning. Ease of administration and anecdotal reports of predictive accuracy are presented as explanations for the continued usage of HFDs. Existing valid measures of behavioral and cognitive functioning render the HFD superfluous.

  

A Picture Is Worth Less Than a Thousand Words:

Response to Reviewers

 Robert W. Motta, Steven G. Little, & Michael I. Tobin

 School Psychology Quarterly, 8, 197-199

The comments in response to our article on human figure drawings (HFDs) (Motta, Little, & Tobin, this issue) ranged from balanced and supportive to biased and attacking. As we had expected, the self-aggrandizing critiques of Naglieri, Bardos, and to a lesser extent, Holtzman, centered more around issues of pet articles that were not included in our paper rather than a substantive presentation of data in support of HFDs. Their thinly veiled tactic of impugning our scholarliness was used to hide one glaringly obvious point, that is, there is little to no compelling data to support the use of HFDs in psychological assessment. The continued use of these invalid assessment devices may represent a violation of the APA Code of Ethics, as shown below.

 

 INTESTINAL DISORDERS

 STEVEN G. LITTLE, K. ANGELEQUE AKIN-LITTLE,

ERIC G. WALDON, & PIERO GARZARO

In L. Phelps (Ed.), Chronic health-related disorders in children: Collaborative medical and psychoeducational interventions (pp. 111-122). Washington, DC: APA Books

Disorders of the digestive tract are among the most common medical disorders across all ages of the population (Enck & Whitehead, 1999). Major symptoms and signs of a disorder of the digestive tract include vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, and abdominal pain (Behrman, Kliegman, & Jenson, 2000). Gastrointestinal disorders in children generally fall into one of three categories: (a) conditions that involve identifiable pathophysiology such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and peptic ulcer disease; (b) conditions involving psychological etiology such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), recurrent abdominal pain (RAP), rumination, and psychogenic vomiting; and (c) other relevant disorders involving the gastrointestinal tract such as cystic fibrosis and celiac disease. In addition to summarizing these conditions, this chapter reviews studies investigating the influence of learning on refractory (or functional) gastrointestinal pain, summarizes research on the treatment of recurrent abdominal pain, and provides practical considerations for working with children who have gastrointestinal disorders.

 

 

Lesch-Nyhan Disease

 Steven G. Little & Jennifer E. Rodemaker

 In L. Phelps (Ed.), A practitioner’s handbook of health-related disorders in children

(pp. 386-391). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

 Lesch-Nyhan disease (Lesch & Nyhan, 1964) is a rare condition caused by a defective gene on the X chromosome resulting in below-average cognitive functioning, spastic cerebral palsy, choreoathetosis (rapid jerky involuntary muscle movements accompanied by slow sinuous writhing movements, usually in the hands), and self-mutilation. The condition is usually inherited but may occur through spontaneous genetic mutation (Davidson et al., 1991). The disorder has generally been thought to affect males only; however, a recent study (Yukawa et al., 1992) has documented the syndrome in a female, and the cause is believed to be spontaneous mutation. The approximate incidence of the disorder is 1 in 380,000 and is distributed evenly among races and geographic locales (Matthews, Solan, & Barabas, 1995). The disease is expressed in the almost complete absence of activity of the enzyme hypoanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (HGPRT), which is responsible for purine metabolism (Page & Nyhan, 1990). The metabolic consequence is an enormous overproduction of uric acid in body fluids. Interestingly, correction of the metabolic defect does not affect the physical and psychological characteristics of these children (Clements, 1988).

Akin-Little, K. A., Little, S. G., Bray, M, & Kehle, T. (2009). Behavioral interventions in schools: Evidence-based positive strategies. Washington, DC: APA Books.

  http://www.apa.org/pubs/books/4317189.aspx